Fitting and machining by Ron Culley

Acknowledgments

Preface

X Machining Tolerances 38; Working to Drawings 38; Working from Tables 38; Working to Tolerances 39

xi Accuracy of Process, Surface Finish and Tolerance 41; Surface Finish 41; Relationship between Surface Finish and Tolerance 42; Sur­

Useful facts and figures: xiii

Mathematical signs and common abbreviations xiii Conversion factors for common English units xiv Conversion table, mm-inch xv

Areas and related formulae of plane figures xvi

Volumes xviii

Geometrical propositions xx Right-angled triangles xx Trigonometry tables xxi Useful tapers and angles xxvi Machine tapers xxvii

Mechanics xxxi The Principle of Work xxxi; Levers xxxi; Pulleys and Wheels xxxii; Screws xxxiii; Wedges xxxiii; Pascal's Law xxxiv

face Finish, Tolerance and the Machine Process 42; Special Cases Needing Very Good Surface Finish 42

Standards of linear measurement 42; Direct Standards 42; Derived Stan­dards 43

Geometric tolerances 46; Selected Use 46; Specifications on Drawings 46; Applications of Geometric Tolerances 48

1 Workshop hints

General hints 1

Metal fret 1

Hardening and tempering a small object 1

1 Titanium and Titanium Alloys 57; Zinc and Zinc Alloys 57

Bearing materials 58; Friction and Wear 58; Properties of Bearing

Materials 58; Selection of Bearing Material 58; Some Common Bearing Materials 58

Press Iii assembly 1 Turning a sleeve bearing 2 Chatter 2

Selling to marked centre in the lathe 2

2 Safety in the workplace 3

Accidents 4; Causes 4; Prevention 4

Personal safety 4; Eyes 4; Ears 4; Manual Lifting 4

First aid 4;

Orderly workshop habits 4; Personal Cleanliness 4; Horseplay 5; Indus­ trial Housekeeping 5

Workshop safety 5

Equipment safety 5; Hand Tools 5; Machinery 5; Electrical Equipment 6; Ladders 6; Compressed Air 6; Cranes 6

Firefighting 6; Types of fire 6

3 Engineering drawing-How to read and use 9

Types of drawing 9; General Arrangement Drawings 9; Assembly Drawings 9; Detail Drawings 9; Drawing Re-issues 9

Types of Line-Their Application and meaning 10 Projection 11; Orthoi;iraphic 11; Isometric 12

Sections 12

Scales 12

Conventional representations, symbols and abbreviations 14; Representa­tions 14; Symbols and Abbreviations 22

Dimensions 28; Units used and Placement for Dimensions 28; Dimen­sions for Screw Threads 28; Auxiliary Dimensions 28; Chamfers 28; Dimensions Not to Scale and Breaklines 29; Tabular Dimensions 29; Use of Other Markings 30

Tolerances 30; General Dimensions 30; Screw Threads 31; Geomet­ric Tolerance Symbols 31

4 Limits-Fits and tolerances 32

Types of fit 32; Clearance Fits 32; Interference Fits 32; Transition Fits 32; Summary 33

Basis for Fits 33: Individual Measuring 33; When the Hole is Produced by a Fixed Tool 33; When Standard Sized Shafting is Used 33; Summary 33

Tolerances 33; Variations in Size 33; Interchangeability of Parts 34

Definitions 34; Standard System of Limits and Fits 36; Tolerances 36; Designations of Holes, Shafts and Fits 37

Selective Assembly 38

5 Materials-Metals 49

Uses of common metals 49: Iron 49; Copper 49; Lead 49; Zinc 49;

Aluminium 49; Nickel and Chromium 49; Tin 49

Ferrous metals 49; Cast iron 49; Steel 51; Alloy steels 53

Non-ferrous metals 54; Copper and Copper Alloys 54; Nickel and Chro­mium Alloys 56; Nickel-chromium Alloys 56; Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys 56; Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 57;

6         Materials-plastics 60

Synthetic rubbers 61

Applications of some common plastics 61 Properties and uses of thermoplastics 62 Properties and uses of thermosetting materials 63

7         Heat treatment 64

Metals 64; Structural Changes in Iron on Heating and Cooling 64; Fer­rous Metals in use today 65

Tool steels 65; Schedule of Tool Steel Composition 63

Heat treatment of steels 68; Features Determining Successful Heat Treatment 68

Heat treatment of tool steels 69; Heating of Austenitize 69; Quenching, to Harden 70; Tempering 72

Constructional steels 73; Group 1 steels 73; Group 2 Steels 74

The Heat treatment of Non-ferrous metals 75; The Hardening of Non­ ferrous Alloys by Heat Treatment 76

Useful books for reference 76 Glossary of terms 76

8      Cutting fluids 83

Functions 83; Cooling 83; Lubricating 83; Chip Removing 83; Prevent­

ing Corrosion 83; Additional Properties 83

Types 83; Alkaline Solutions 83; 'Soluble' Mineral Cutting Oils 83; Oil­ less Cutting Fluids 84; 'Straight' Cutting Oils 84

Using culling fluids 84; Flow and Temperature 84; Choosing a Cutting Fluid 84; Method of Supply 84; Application 84; Filtering, Sterilizing and Reclaiming 84; Care of Electrical Equipment 86

9      Lubricants 87

Types 87; Lubricating Oils 87; Greases 87

Applying lubricants 89; Methods 89; Frequency of Application 90

10      Cutting speed and feed rate 92

Cutting speed 92; Cutting Speed and Tool Life 92; Factors Affecting Cutting Speed 92; Cutting Speed and r.p.m. 93

Feed rate 95; Factors Affecting Feed Rate 95; Feed Rate Recommen­dations 95

11       Cutting tools 96

General principles 96; Orthogonal Cutting 96; Inclined Cutting 96

Cutting tool angles: Normal rake 97; Inclination 98; Direction of Cut­ ting 98; Approach Angle and Side Cutting-edge Angle 99; End Relief Angle 100; Nose Radius 100; Clearance Angles 100

Guide to the selection of lathe tools 100

Cemented carbide tools 101; manufacture 101; Classification 101; Selec­ tion of Insert 103; Tool Design and Type of Clamping 105; Operating Conditions and Tool Life 106; Tool Failures and Remedies 109

Tools made from other materials 111; Cemented Oxide Tools 111; Dia­ mond Tools 111; Comparing Tool Materials 111

12       Benches and bench vices 112

Benches; Types 112; Construction 112; Position of the Bench 112; Tidiness 112

Engineers' vices 112; Types 112; Location of the Bench Vice 113; Spe­ cial jaws 113; Care and Use of the Vice 113

13       Fasteners 114

14       Screw threads 117

Uses 117

Screw thread terms 117

Common V-thread forms 117; ISO metric 117; Whitworth 118; British Association 119; Unified 119; V-thread calculations 119; Screw

Thread Table 119

Square-thread forms 124; Acme-thread forms 124; Trapezoidal-thread forms 124; Buttress-thread forms 124; Worm-thread forms 124

15      Hand tools 125

Files 125; Parts of a File 125; Classification 125; Using a File 128; Testing Filed Surfaces 128; Filing a Square Hole 130; Filing a Square on a Shaft 130; Care of Files 131; Files for Use Under Special Conditions 131

Chisels and chipping 131; Common Types 132; Cutting Angles 132; Using a Chisel 133

Spanners 133; Types 133

Wrenches 136; Pipe wrenches 136

Pliers 137; General purpose 137; Cutting 138; Circlip 138

Tinsnips 138; Hacksaws 138; Keys 138; Screwdrivers 139; Hammers 139; Punches 140; Wheel or bearing pullers 141; Pop riveting tools 141; Clamps 141

16       Drills and reamers 142

Drills 142; Types 142; Accessories 143; Nomenclature 144; Opera­tion 144

Reamers 150; Types 150; Nomenclature 152; Tolerances 152; Oper­ation Of Reamers Sharpening 154; Storage 154

17       Threading tools 155

Taps and dies 155; Tap range 155; Sets of Taps 155; Nomenclature 156; Sharpening 156; Using a tap 159

Screw extractors 159; Tap wrenches 159

Dies 160; Adjustable Button Dies 160; Die Nuts 160; Using a Die 161

18       Work-holding methods 162

Holding workpieces on machines 162

Clamping principles 162; Clamping Devices 162; Application of Force 162; Height of Packing 162; Position of Clamps 162; Thick­ ness of Clamps 162; Use of Washers 163; Number of Clamps and Stops 163

Types of clamps and accessories 163; Clamps for Machining 163; Machine Vices 165; General Purpose Clamps 165

19       Marking and measuring tools 167

Scribers 167; Using a Scriber 167

Dividers 167; Hermaphrodite calipers 168; Trammels 168

Surface gauges 168; Types 168; Setting 169; Using 169; Uses 169

Punches 170; Parallel strips 170; V-blocks 170; Angle plates 170; Screw jacks

171; Steel rules 171

Micrometers 171; Outside Micrometer Calipers 171; Inside Microme­ ter Calipers 174; Micrometer Depth Gauge 174; Screw-thread Micrometers 174; Care of a Micrometer 175

Verniers 175; Principle of a Vernier 175; Vernier Calipers 175; Ver- nier Height Gauges 177

Calipers 177; Taking a Measurement

Straight edges 179

Try squares 179; Testing a Try Square 179; Using a Try Square 179; Care of the Try Square 180

Combination set 180; Toolmakers square 180

Protractors 181; Vernier Protractors 181

Box square and keyseat clamps 181

Bevel gauges 181; Using a Bevel Gauge 182

Depth gauges 182; Telescoping gauges 182; Small hole gauges 183; Screw pitch gauges 183; Centre gauges 183; Feeler gauges 183; Radius gauges 183; Toolmakers buttons 184; Centre finder and wiggler 184 Indicators 184; Lever Indicators 184; Dial Indicators 185; Care of Indicators 188

20       Introduction to precision measurement 189

Systems of measurement 189

Errors in workshop measurement 189; Common Sources of Error 190

Comparative measurement 191; Use of a Dial Gauge 191; Use of a Floating Carriage Micrometer 192

The use of gauge blocks 193; Composition of Gauge Sets 193; How to Use Gauge Blocks 194; Accuracy 195; Accessories 196; Using an Optical Flat to Test Flatness of Gauge Blocks 196

Use of length bars 197

Use of balls, rollers and discs in precision measurement 198; Checking External Tapers 198; Checking Internal Tapers 199; Check­ ing Small Internal Tapers 199; Checking Dovetail Slides 199; Checking Taper Angles 199

Use of sine bars in precision movement 200; Construction 200; Principle and Application 200; Accuracy of Sine Bars 200; Sine Centres 200

Use of spirit levels in precision measurement 201; Construction and Use 201; Reading a Level 201

Use of clinometers in precision movement 202; Mechanical Clinometers 202; Optical Clinometers 202

The digital readout system 202

21       Operational planning 203

Planning machining operations 203; Importance of Planning 203; Information Needed 203; Planning Procedure 203

22       Principles of marking out work 206

Purpose of marking out 206

Types of line 206; Datum Lines 206; Centre Lines 206; Outlines 206

Tools and equipment 207

Marking-out procedure 208; Inspection Before Marking Out 208; Prepar­ ing the Work 209

Permanent establishment of lines 210

23       Cut-off machines 211

Power hacksaws 211; Reciprocating Hacksaw 211; Automatic Bar-Feed Reciprocating Hacksaw 212

Horizontal handsaw 212

The abrasive cut-off saw 212 The friction saw 213

The cold circular saw 213; The Blade 213

24       The vertical handsaw 215

Description 215; Machine Capacity 216

Operating the handsaw 217; Drive System 217; Job Selector 217; The Table 217; Installing the Blade 217

Attachments 219

Welding blades 220; Welding Operating 221; Annealing Operation 221

Selection of blades 222; Pitch of Teeth 222; Blade Size 222

25       Drilling machines 224

Types of drilling machine 224; Bench Drill 224; Pillar Drill 224; Radial Drill 224; Multi-spindle Drill 225

Setting up and holding work 225; Using a Machine Vice 226; Clamped to the Machine Table 226; Clamped to an Angle Plate 226; Clamped on V-blocks 226

Drilling a hole to marking out 226

26       Centre lathes 228

Units of a centre lathe 228; The Bed 228; The Headstock 229; The Tail­ stock 231; The Saddle or Carriage 231; Feeding Mechanism 233

Facing and boring lathes 236

27      Capstan and turret lathes 237

General features and uses 237; Capstan Lathe 237; Turret Lathe 238

Parts of a capstan or turret lathe 238; The Mid-saddle 238; The Head- stock 238; Stop Systems 238; Bar Feed Mechanism 239

Work-holding methods 239; Bar Feed Work 239; Chuck Work 239

Cutting methods 240; Single Cutting Operations 240; Multiple Cutting Operations 240; Combined Cutting Operations 240

Cutting tools 240; Turret Tools 240; Mid-saddle Tools 244

Setting an operations sequence 244

28      Lathe operations-Turning 247

Mounting and removing chuck, faceplate, driving plate and centre 247; Fit­ ting the Chuck, Faceplate and Driving Plate 247; Remove the Chuck, Faceplate and Driving Plate 248

Chuck work 248; Four-jaw Independent Chuck 248; Three-jaw Self­centering Chuck 251

Faceplate work 251; Methods of Holding Work 251

Turning between centres 253; General Description 253; Types of Lathe Centre 254; Centre Drilling 254; Aligning Lathe Centres 256; Setting the Workpiece Between Centres 257

Setting the cutting tool 257; Overhang and Rigidity 257; Height of Cut­

ting tool 258; Setting the Approach Angle 259

Turning a stepped spindle 260; Turning the Diameters 260; Turning the Lengths 260

Taper turning 261; Using a Form Tool 261; Using the Top-Slide 262;

Using a Taper Turning Attachment 263; Taper Turning by Off­ setting the Tailstock 264

Form turning 264; Free-hand Form Turning 264; Form Turning with

Tools 265

Drilling in the lathe 267

Threading with taps and dies 268; Using Taps with a Centre Hole 268; Tapping Using Small Taps 268; Threading with a Buttonhole Die 268; Threading with Hand Dies 269

Boring operations 269; Uses 269; Types of Tool 269; Shape of the Tool 270; Boring a Parallel Hole 271; Boring a Tapered Hole 271 Reaming in the lathe 273; Work Preparation 273; Using a Machine

Reamer 273; Using a Hand Reamer 273

Knurling 274; Knurling Tools 274; Method of Use 274

Parting off 274; Holding the Workpiece 274; Parting-off Tools 275; Procedure 276

Work requiring steady rests 276; Fixed Steady Rest 276; Travelling Steady Rest 278; Problems with Unstable Work 278

Work requiring use of mandrels 278; Mandrel use 278; Types 279

Copy turning 280; Methods 280; The Hydraulic Attachment 280; Ele­ments of Copy Turning 281; Masters 283; The Cutting Tool 284; Holding and Driving the Work 285; Setting Up 285; General Comments 286

29      Lathe operations-Setting up and cutting threads 289

Preparing the blank 289

Preparing the lathe 289; Setting Up the Machine 290; Metric Pitches from Inch-based Lead Screws 290; Gear Settings for Non­ metric Threads 291

Grinding the screw-cutting tools 291; Tool Shape and Angles 291; Grinding the tool 293

Setting the tool; Requirements 294; Procedure 294

Registering the screwing tool 295; Tool Register 295

Cutting external threads 297; Setting the Speed 297; Thread-cutting Methods 297; Cutting the Thread 299; Finishing Thread Ends 299

Cutting internal threads 300; The Blank 300; Setting the Machine 300; Tool Sharpening and Setting 300; Cutting the Thread 300

Multiple-start threads 300; Some Characteristics 300; Applications 302; Change Gear Calculations 302; Sharpening Tools 304; Set­ ting Up the Tool 306; Indexing the Starts 306

Worm gears 308

30       Vertical boring machines 309

General features 309; Size 309; Additional Features 309; Types 309 Parts of a vertical boring machine 309; The Bed 309; The Work Table or Chuck 310; The Cross-rail 310; The Toolhead 310; The Tool

Blocks 310

Use of vertical boring machines 310; Advantages 311; Machining Tech­niques 311; Types of Cutting Tool 311

31      The Shaping machine 312

Construction and operation 312; Classification 312; Column-type Crank 312

Methods of holding work 314; In the Vice 314; On the Table 316; In V­

blocks 316; On Angle Plates 316

Operating the machine 316; Setting the Stroke Length 317; Position­ ing the Stroke 317; Setting the Speed 317; Setting the Cut 317; Setting the Feed 318; Shaping the work 319

Basic Shaping Operations 319; Square and Parallel Surfaces 319; Squar­ ing the Ends 319; Shaping a Vertical Surface 319; Horizontal and Vertical Shaping 319; Shaping Angular Surfaces 319; Shaping a V-block 320; Shaping a Dovetail Slide 320

32      The slotting machine 321

Construction and operation 312; Classification 321; General Purpose Slot­ ting Machine 321

Basic slotting operations 322; Holding the Workpiece 322; Slotting a Parallel Keyway 323; Slotting a Tapered Keyway 323; Cutting an Internal Slot 323; Slotting a Large Internal Cavity 323; Straight and Circular Slotting 324

33      The planing machine 325

Construction and operation 325; Classification 325; Double Housing Plan­ ing Machine 326

Holding and setting work 326; Checking the Machine 326; Holding the Work 326

Basic planing operations 326; Planing Horizontal Surfaces 326; Plan­ ing Vertical Surfaces 326; Planing Horizontal and Vertical Sur­ faces 327; Planing an Angular Surface 327

34       Milling machines 328

The knee-type mill 328; Plain Milling Machine 328; Universal Machine 328; Vertical Machine 328

Bed-type mills 329;

Types of arbors and adaptors 330; Plain Arbor 330; Shell End Mill and Face Mill Arbor 330; Adaptors 331; Direct Mounting of Cutter to Spindle 332

Types and uses of cutters 332; Types of Cutter 332

Milling cutter design 336; Milled Type Teeth 336; Form-relieved-type teeth 338; Cemented Carbide Cutters 339; Inserted Tooth Cut­ ters 340

Methods of milling 340; Normal or Up-Cut 340; Climb or Down-Cut 341;

Application to End Milling 341

Mounting the cutter 341; Arbor-type Cutters 341; Shank-type Cutters 342

Cutting speeds and feeds 342; Speeds 342; Feeds 344

Method of holding work 344; On the Machine Table 344; In a Vice 346; In a V-block 347; In an Indexing Head 347

Milling machine attachments 348; Vertical Attachment 348; Universal Attachment 348; Slotting Attachment 349; Other Attachments 349

Care and use of cutters and equipment 350; Cutters 350; Equipment and Machine 351

35      Milling operations 1 352

Flat surfaces 352; Work Held in a Vice 352; Held on a Machine Table 353

Milling keyways 354

Milling a T-slot 356; The Cutters 356

Straddle milling 356; The Cutters 357

Gang milling 357; The Cutters 357

Indexing 358; Types of Head 358; Parts of a Universal Head 358; Methods of Indexing 360

36      Milling operations 2 364

Spiral or helical milling 364; Principle 365; Drive 365; Calculating Lead 366; The Helix 366; Checking the Change Gear Assembly 367; Selecting the Cutter 367; Setting the Machine-Table 368; Set­ ting the Cutter 369; Cutting Helical Flutes 370

Milling sides and end llu1es 371; Holding the Work 371; Selecting the Cutter 371; Setting the Indexing Head 372; Cutting the Flutes 373

Copy milling 373; The Model 373; Copy Milling Machines 374; Setting the Work 374; The Pantograph Machine 374

37       The horizontal boring and milling machine 375

Types of machine 375; Floor Type 375; Table Type 375

Features of construction 375; The Bed 376; The Column 376; The Spin­ dle Head 376; The Universal All-angle Milling Head 377; The Facing and Boring Head 377; The Carriage 377; The Boring Stay 378; Positioning 378

Basic machining operations 378; Boring 378; Facing 380; Turning 381;

Machining holes 382

Special advantages of the horizontal boring machine 382 Care of the machine 382

38       Types and elements of gearing 383

Applications of toothed gearing 383; Application to Parallel Shafts 383; Application to Crossed Shafts in Parallel Planes 384; Appli­ cation to Intersecting Shafts 385

Gear tooth profile 386; Development of Involute Curves 386

Gear terminology 389; For Spur Gears 389; For Helical Gears 391; Terminology for Worm Gearing 391

Gearing systems; ISO metric 20° Involute 392; British Standard 20° Involute 392; American Standard 14½° Full Depth Involute 392; American Standard 20° Full Depth Involute 392; Ameri­ can Standard 14½° Composite 392; American Standard 20° Stub Tooth Involute 393; Summary of Gear Systems 394

Relationship between Metric Module Pitch, Diametral Pitch and Transverse Pitch 394; Metric Module System 394; Diametral Pitch System 394; Transverse Pitch System 394

39       Cutting of gears by the milling process 395

Cutting a spur gear 395; Preparation of the Blank 395; Selecting the Cutter 395; Mounting the Cutter 396; Setting Cutter to Depth 397; Application of Simple Indexing 397; Cutting Spaces to Form Teeth 397

Cutting a short spur rack 397; Holding the Work 397; Setting the Cutter 398

Cutting a long spur rack 399; Holding the work 399; Holding the Cutter 399; Indexing the Flutes 399

Cutting a helical gear 400; Effect of Helix Angle 400; Calculations 400; Setting up and Cutting 403

Culling a short helical rack 403; Holding the Work 403; Setting the Cutter 403; Indexing the Teeth 404; Cutting the Teeth 404; Cutting a Worm 404

40       Grinding wheels 406

Wheel markings 406; General Marking System 406

Selecting the grinding wheel 408; Features to be Considered 408

Wheel mounting, balancing and trueing 410; Inspection 410; Mounting

44       Tool and cutter grinding 446

Tool and cutter grinding machine 446; Principal Features 447; Mount­ ing the Wheel 448; Grinding Square and Parallel Surfaces 448 Grinding angular surfaces on cutting tools and gauges 448; Grinding An­

gular Surfaces 449; Compound Angles 451

General information about grinding milled tooth cutters 451; Grinding Wheel Shapes 451; Milled Tooth Cutters 451; Form-relieved Cutters 451; Need for Sharp Cutters 452; Clearance Angles for Milled Cutters 452; Holding the Cutter 453; Methods of Grinding Clearance Angles 453

Grinding straight-tooth milling cutters 457; Requirements 457; Holding the Cutter 457; Preparing the Grinding Wheel 457; Locating the Tooth Rest 458; Grinding the Teeth 458

Grinding helical flute milling cutters 459; Requirements 459; Holding the Cutter 459; Preparing the Grinding Wheel 459; Locating the Tooth Rest 459; Grinding the Teeth 460

Grinding side or end teeth on cutters 461; Requirements 461; Holding the Cutter 461; Setting the Workhead 461; Locating the Tooth Rest 461; Grinding the Teeth 462

Reconditioned milled cutters 462; Grinding the Tooth Face and Gullet 462; Grinding the Clearance Angles 463

Grinding form-relieved milling cutters 463; Requirements 464; Holding and Setting the Cutter 464; Grinding the Tooth Face 464; Shar­ pening Hobs 464; Sharpening Form-relieved End Mills 465

Grinding reamers 465

Sharpening taps 465

45       Centreless grinding 466

Introduction 467

Basic types of grinder 468

Design of the grinder 469; Grinding-wheel Bearings 469; Regulating­ wheel Bearings 470; Workrest Blade 470; Slides and their Feed Devices 470; Dressing Devices 470; Balancing the Grind­ ing Wheels; Grinding and Regulating Wheels 472

Technique of centreless grinding 472; Through-feed Grinding 472; In­ feed Grinding 473

411; Balancing 411; Trueing and Dressing 412

Safe Use of Grinding Wheels 413; Safety guide 413; Care and storage 413 Other abrasives 413; Oil Stones and Hone Stones 413; Coated Abra­ sives 413; Dressing Sticks 414; CBN Grinding Wheels 414;

Diamond Grinding Wheels 414

46       Honing and Lapping

Honing 475 Lapping 475

47       Economical use of machine tools

Introduction 477

41      Off-hand grinding Mounting the wheel 415 Other wheels 415

Action of a cutting tool 477; Shear Angle 477

Life of a cutting tool 478; Tool Failure 478; Factors Affecting Tool Life 478

Use of available power 479

Power requirements for turning operations 479

42      Surface grinding 417

Surface grinding machines 417; Horizontal Spindle Machines 417; Ver­ tical Spindle Machines 418; Comparison of Finish 419

Wheel selection and care 419; Choice of Wheel 419; Trueing the Wheel 421

Grinding allowance 421

Work-holding methods 421; Magnetic Chucks 421; Clamps 424; Vices

424; Angle Plates 424; Fixtures 424; Specially Designed Mag­ netic Fixtures

Grinding of the surface 424; Plane Surfaces 424; Angular Surfaces 425;

Recesses 426; Formed Surfaces 427

Problems with surface grinding 428; Grinding Thin Work 428

43      Cylindrical grinding 429

Cylindrical grinding machines 429; Plain Grinders 429; Universal 430

Work preparation and holding 433; Grinding Allowance 433; Work Centres 434; Work Holding 435

Grinding a spindle parallel 435; Operating the Machine 435; Preparing the Wheel 436; Setting up the Work 436; Setting up the Machine 436

Grinding a shoulder 437; Grinding to a Shoulder 437; Grinding the Shoul­

der 438

Taper grinding 438; By Swivelling the Table 439; By Swivelling the Workhead 439; By Swivelling the Wheelhead 440; By Plunge Cut Grinding 440

Form grinding 441; Plunge Cut 441

Internal grinding 441; Attachment 441; Types of Machine 442; Mount­ ing the Work 444; Wheel Selection and Care 444; Grinding a Parallel Bore 444; Grinding a Taper Bore 445

Economical machining using high-speed steel 480

Economical use of the milling machine 480; Calculations 481

48       Fitting 482

Fitting of mating parts 482; General Principles for Fitting Accurate Mating Parts 482; Fitting a Fixed Feather Key 482; Fitting a Tapered Key 482

Scrapers and scraping 483; Purpose 483; Types and Uses 483; Scrap­ ing Flat Surfaces 486; Scraping Curved Surfaces 486

Friction 486; Efficiency 486; Methods of Reducing Friction 486; Fric­tional Values for Metals in Contact 486; Types of Friction 487

Bearings 488; Bearing Loading 488; Types of Plain Bearing 488

Oil seals, packing and joints 489; Oil Seals 489; Glands and Reciprocat­ ing Seals 491; Packing 493; Jointing 493

Selling up machines 494; Levelling 494; Spindle Bearing Adjustments 495; Slide Adjustments 496

Thread repair kits 497

49       Keys, keyways, splines and pins 499

Keys and keyways 499; Sunk Key 499; Sliding Key Retained in Wheel 499; Woodruff Key 500; Saddle Key 500; Scotch Key 500; Key

Proportions 500

Splines 501; Pins 501

50       Ball and roller bearings 502

Bearing designations 502; Supplementary Designations 502

Bearing checks during operation 503 Inspection during non-operation 504

Dismounting bearings 505; Interference Fit on Shaft 505; Interference Fit in Housing 506; Bearings Mounted on Sleeves 506; Inspect­ ing Dismounted Bearings 506

Bearing damage 508

Mounting bearings 511; Interference Fit on Shaft 511; Interference Fit in Housing 512; Cylindrical Roller Bearings 512; Taper Roller Bearings 512; Bearings on Sleeves 514; Applying Lubricant 516; Test Running 517

Lubrication instructions 517; Grease Lubrication 518; Oil Lubrication 518

Mounting and dismounting tools 519; Hydraulic Tools 519; Mechanical Tools 519

Fits and tolerances for shaft and housing 519 Abutment and fillet dimensions 520

51      Power transmission 528

Line shafts 528

Flat belts 528; Flat Belt Pulleys 528

V-belts 528; V-belts for Pulleys 529; Assembly of the Drive 529

Taper Bushes 529

Roller chains 530; Sprockets 531; Chain Drives 531; Measuring Chain Wear 531

Silent chains 532; Toothed Belt 532

Couplings 532; Compression Coupling 532; Flexible Coupling-disc Types 533; Flexible Coupling-Spider Type 533; Chain Coupling 533

Universal joints 534

Clutches 534; Dog-tooth Clutch 534; Cone-type 534; Expanding Shoe Type 535; Plate Type 535; Toggle Action Linkage 535; Cen­ trifugal Clutches 535; Magnetic Clutches 536; Sprag Clutches 536; Brakes 536

Gearboxes and gear motors 536

52      Lifting and slinging 537

Slinging practice 537; Introduction 537; Basic Materials 537; Basic Con- figurations 537

Some dangers with temporary slings 537 Knots, bends and hitches 539

Factors affecting the safe working load 539; Capacities of Two-leg Slings 540; Other Factors Affecting SWL 541

Eyebolls 542; Dangers 542; Uses 542

Plate-handling devices 543; Vertical Handling 543

Turning over of loads 543

Points to remember 544; Do 544; Don't 544

Australian standards 545

53      Welding 546

Soldering, brazing and bronze welding 546; Soldering 546; Brazing 546; Bronze Welding 546

Pressure welding 546; Spot Welding 547; Seam Welding 547; Butt

Welding 547

Fusion welding 547; Oxyacetylene 547; Shielded Metallic Arc 550;

M.I.G. 552; T.I.G. 553

Profile cutting of steel 553; Equipment 553; Procedure 554; Defects 554; Methods 554

Setting up for welding 554; Welding Fixtures 554; Clamping and Tack

Welding 555

Methods of surfacing using welding 555; Introduction 555; Reclamation 555; Metallizing 555

54      Toolmaking 556

Toolroom functions 556; Factors Affecting the Toolmaker 556; Duties and Skills of the Toolmaker 556; Types of Toolmaking 557

Press toolmaking 557; Use of Press Tools 557; Basic Press-working

Operations 557; Types of Die 559; The Blanking Die 559; Action of Blanking and Piercing Dies 561

Diemaking for plastics and diecasting 562; Basic Principles of Compres­sion and Injection Moulding 562; Simple Compression Mould­ ing Dies 563; Simple Injection Moulding Dies 565

Pressure diecasting 565; Hot Chamber 565; Simple Dies 566

Tool and gauge making 566; Mass Production and Interchangeability 566; Tools and Gauges used in Mass Production 566; Basic Principles of Limit Gauge Design 570; Work Tolerance and Gauge Tolerance 570; Determining Limit Gauge Tolerance 571; Basic Skills 571

56       Fluid power-industrial pneumatics 573

Air and related laws 573; Pressure Measurement 574; The Gas Laws 574

Compressed air production 574; Air-production Unit 574; Graphic

Representation 575; Air Production Components 576

Compressed air systems 576; Basic Circuit Components 579; Circuit Development Techniques 579

57       Fluid power-hydraulics 582

History 582

Features of hydraulic systems 582; Properties of Fluids 583; Advantages of Hydraulic Power 583; Problems and Limitations 583; Units and Formulae 583

Classes and properties of hydraulic fluids 584; Classes 584; Properties 584

Hydraulic pumps 585; Types 585; Displacement 586; Examples of

Pumps 586

Hydraulic valves 590; Relief 590; Unloading 591; Sequence 592; Flow

Control 592; Directional Control 593

Basic symbols for fluid power equipment 594

58       Steam 596

59       Numerical control machine tools 597

Introduction 597

What is numerical control 597

General features 597; Basic Components 597; Coordinate Systems and Machine Motions 598; Absolute and Incremental Positioning 599

Computerized numerical control 600; Direct Control 600; Data Input 600; NC Tape Codes 601

Manual programming 603; Preparing the Program 603; Program Verifi­ cation 605; Machine Operation 605

Computer-assisted programming 605; CAD/CAM 605; Computer Integrated Manufacture 606

60       Portable power tools 607

Power tool safety 607

Power sources 607; Mains Supply 607; High-frequency Electricity Supply 607; Compressed Air 608

Drills 608; Attachments 608

Grinders 609; The Angle Grinder 609; Straight Grinder 609; Die Grinder 610

Power hammers 610; Nibblers and shears 611; Circular saws 611; Jigsaws 611; Power wrenches 612

61       Preventive maintenance and care of machines and tools 613

Preventive machine maintenance 613; Maintenance Roster and Chart 613; Preventing Damage 613

Preventive tool maintenance 613; Importance of Trained Operators 614

Machine care and usage 614; Checking Machines 614; Checking Tools 614

62       Report writing 615

The memo 615; Production of Memos 615

Writing short reports 615; Report Layout 615; A Sample Report 616

Standard forms and work tickets 617

63      Measurement of gear teeth 620

Gear tooth vernier method 620; Setting the Gear Tooth Vernier 620; Reading the Table 620; Using the Gear Tooth Vernier 620

Span measurement 621; Advantages of Span Measurement 621; Cal­culating Span Measurements 621; Backlash 621

64       Gear cutting by generating processes 623

Generating processes 623; The Rack Cutter Process 623; Pinion Cutter Process 624; The Hobbing Process 625

Types of hobbing machines 626; The Vertical-type Hobbing Machine 626; The Horizontal-type Hobbing Machine 627

Hobbing a spurgear 627; Selecting, Mounting, and Setting the Hob 627;

Preparing and Mounting the Blank 628; Index Change Gears 630; Cutting the Teeth 631

Hobbing a worm wheel by in-feed method 632; Types of Worm Wheel 632; Preparation of Worm Wheel Blanks 632; Selection of the

Hob 632; Hobbing the Worm Wheel 633; Laminations of the

55 Springs and their uses

Types of spring 572; Spring materials 572

In-feed Method 633

Ready-find Index 634